Display options
Cite
Farid WO, Dunlop SA, Tait RJ, et al. The effects of maternally administered methadone, buprenorphine and naltrexone on offspring: review of human and animal data. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2008;6(2):125-50doi: 10.2174/157015908784533842.
Farid, W. O., Dunlop, S. A., Tait, R. J., & Hulse, G. K. (2008). The effects of maternally administered methadone, buprenorphine and naltrexone on offspring: review of human and animal data. Current neuropharmacology, 6(2), 125-50. https://doi.org/10.2174/157015908784533842
Farid, W O, et al. "The effects of maternally administered methadone, buprenorphine and naltrexone on offspring: review of human and animal data." Current neuropharmacology vol. 6,2 (2008): 125-50. doi: https://doi.org/10.2174/157015908784533842
Farid WO, Dunlop SA, Tait RJ, Hulse GK. The effects of maternally administered methadone, buprenorphine and naltrexone on offspring: review of human and animal data. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2008 Jun;6(2):125-50. doi: 10.2174/157015908784533842. PMID: 19305793; PMCID: PMC2647150.
Copy Download .nbib Format: NLM
Share it on

Curr Neuropharmacol. 2008 Jun;6(2):125-50. doi: 10.2174/157015908784533842.

The effects of maternally administered methadone, buprenorphine and naltrexone on offspring: review of human and animal data.

Current neuropharmacology

W O Farid, S A Dunlop, R J Tait, G K Hulse

Affiliations

  1. School of Animal Biology, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia.

PMID: 19305793 PMCID: PMC2647150 DOI: 10.2174/157015908784533842

Abstract

Most women using heroin are of reproductive age with major risks for their infants. We review clinical and experimental data on fetal, neonatal and postnatal complications associated with methadone, the current "gold standard", and compare these with more recent, but limited, data on developmental effects of buprenorphine, and naltrexone. Methadone is a micro-opioid receptor agonist and is commonly recommended for treatment of opioid dependence during pregnancy. However, it has undesired outcomes including neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). Animal studies also indicate detrimental effects on growth, behaviour, neuroanatomy and biochemistry, and increased perinatal mortality. Buprenorphine is a partial micro-opioid receptor agonist and a kappa-opioid receptor antagonist. Clinical observations suggest that buprenorphine during pregnancy is similar to methadone on developmental measures but is potentially superior in reducing the incidence and prognosis of NAS. However, small animal studies demonstrate that low doses of buprenorphine during pregnancy and lactation lead to changes in offspring behaviour, neuroanatomy and biochemistry. Naltrexone is a non-selective opioid receptor antagonist. Although data are limited, humans treated with oral or sustained-release implantable naltrexone suggest outcomes potentially superior to those with methadone or buprenorphine. However, animal studies using oral or injectable naltrexone have shown developmental changes following exposure during pregnancy and lactation, raising concerns about its use in humans. Animal studies using chronic exposure, equivalent to clinical depot formulations, are required to evaluate safety. While each treatment is likely to have maternal advantages and disadvantages, studies are urgently required to determine which is optimal for offspring in the short and long term.

Keywords: Methadone; buprenorphine; development.; fetal; naltrexone; neonatal; offspring; pregnancy

References

  1. Neurosci Lett. 1993 Jan 4;149(1):47-50 - PubMed
  2. Dev Neurosci. 1989;11(6):428-34 - PubMed
  3. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2001 Nov;41(4):424-8 - PubMed
  4. Addict Biol. 2002 Jul;7(3):321-3 - PubMed
  5. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2002 Feb;38(3):351-76 - PubMed
  6. Brain Res Bull. 1993;30(5-6):523-7 - PubMed
  7. J Reprod Med. 1990 Feb;35(2):159-62 - PubMed
  8. Drug Metab Dispos. 1998 Aug;26(8):818-21 - PubMed
  9. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1986 Jul;17(4):311-22 - PubMed
  10. Am J Public Health. 1978 Jul;68(7):676-8 - PubMed
  11. J Subst Abuse. 1989;1(4):453-60 - PubMed
  12. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002 Feb;159(4):351-60 - PubMed
  13. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs. 2001 Mar;14(4):26-45 - PubMed
  14. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004 Sep 6;75(3):253-60 - PubMed
  15. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods. 1999 Oct;42(2):61-6 - PubMed
  16. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997 Aug;54(8):713-20 - PubMed
  17. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1998 Nov 1;111(1):35-42 - PubMed
  18. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1977 Sep;7(3):285-8 - PubMed
  19. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1997 Nov-Dec;19(6):499-509 - PubMed
  20. Brain Res. 1987 Jul 21;416(1):157-61 - PubMed
  21. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1988 Mar;14(3):156-70 - PubMed
  22. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1979;11 Suppl:19-22 - PubMed
  23. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Sep;306(3):1099-105 - PubMed
  24. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005 Apr 4;78(1):33-8 - PubMed
  25. NIDA Res Monogr. 1996;164:230-41 - PubMed
  26. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002 Jan;300(1):26-33 - PubMed
  27. J Med Chem. 1975 Jul;18(7):647-55 - PubMed
  28. Life Sci. 1999;65(22):2359-71 - PubMed
  29. Exp Neurol. 1977 Sep;56(3):538-52 - PubMed
  30. Percept Mot Skills. 1980 Jun;50(3 Pt 2):1119-24 - PubMed
  31. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1982 Jul-Aug;4(4):429-34 - PubMed
  32. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1992 Aug;32(3):216-21 - PubMed
  33. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1997 Dec;58(4):1075-82 - PubMed
  34. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1982;22(4):343-9 - PubMed
  35. Addiction. 1998 Oct;93(10):1553-8 - PubMed
  36. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001 Mar 2;414(2-3):211-4 - PubMed
  37. Bull N Y Acad Med. 1991 May-Jun;67(3):270-6 - PubMed
  38. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004 May 28;318(2):428-34 - PubMed
  39. Biol Neonate. 1997;71(6):345-56 - PubMed
  40. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2003 Oct;43(5):386-8 - PubMed
  41. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1986 Apr;237(1):126-30 - PubMed
  42. Am J Addict. 2000 Winter;9(1):92-3 - PubMed
  43. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1982 May;13(5):665-73 - PubMed
  44. J Addict Dis. 1999;18(4):51-61 - PubMed
  45. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006 Jun 1;126(2):170-5 - PubMed
  46. Brain Res Bull. 2004 Mar 1;63(1):57-63 - PubMed
  47. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1997 Jul-Aug;14(4):359-66 - PubMed
  48. Physiol Behav. 1985 Apr;34(4):507-11 - PubMed
  49. Neurobehav Toxicol. 1979 Spring;1(1):87-95 - PubMed
  50. J Neurochem. 1978 Jul;31(1):49-54 - PubMed
  51. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1975;2(3-4):357-63 - PubMed
  52. Addiction. 1996 Nov;91(11):1727-9 - PubMed
  53. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1996 Aug;22(3):439-48 - PubMed
  54. Pediatrics. 1999 May;103(5 Pt 2):1085-99 - PubMed
  55. Addiction. 2004 Jul;99(7):811-28 - PubMed
  56. Am J Addict. 2004;13 Suppl 1:S42-66 - PubMed
  57. JAMA. 1972 Jun 26;220(13):1733-4 - PubMed
  58. Life Sci. 1997;61(13):1261-7 - PubMed
  59. Semin Neonatol. 2000 Aug;5(3):243-54 - PubMed
  60. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Apr 19;(2):CD002025 - PubMed
  61. NIDA Res Monogr. 1976 Sep;(9):16-26 - PubMed
  62. Am J Dis Child. 1989 Aug;143(8):905-10 - PubMed
  63. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995 Nov;40(1):17-25 - PubMed
  64. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 Apr 1;69(3):317-22 - PubMed
  65. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2001 Aug;41(3):329-32 - PubMed
  66. Am J Dis Child. 1987 Nov;141(11):1163-7 - PubMed
  67. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006 Mar 15;82(1):25-31 - PubMed
  68. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1998 Jan;59(1):201-7 - PubMed
  69. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1996 May;54(1):183-8 - PubMed
  70. Life Sci. 1966 Sep;5(17):1577-82 - PubMed
  71. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1995 May;35(2):175-7 - PubMed
  72. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2002 Feb;42(1):93-4 - PubMed
  73. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2003 Jun;24(4):363-7 - PubMed
  74. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005 Sep 1;79(3):351-7 - PubMed
  75. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1997 Oct 25;48(1):33-41 - PubMed
  76. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2004;43(5):329-40 - PubMed
  77. Biol Psychiatry. 1993 Jul 1-15;34(1-2):66-74 - PubMed
  78. J Pharm Sci. 1984 May;73(5):621-4 - PubMed
  79. Microsc Res Tech. 1997 Jul 1-15;38(1-2):145-52 - PubMed
  80. Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Dec;100(6):1244-9 - PubMed
  81. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1981 Apr;217(1):147-51 - PubMed
  82. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1964 Sep 15;90:155-60 - PubMed
  83. Dev Neurosci. 1982;5(1):13-8 - PubMed
  84. Addiction. 2003 Nov;98(11):1599-604 - PubMed
  85. Br J Addict. 1991 Aug;86(8):983-90 - PubMed
  86. J Pediatr. 1976 Apr;88(4 Pt 1):637-41 - PubMed
  87. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1981;20(6):473-8 - PubMed
  88. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1994 Feb;34(3):231-6 - PubMed
  89. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976 Sep;20(3):315-28 - PubMed
  90. Addiction. 1998 Apr;93(4):475-86 - PubMed
  91. J Clin Pharmacol. 1993 Sep;33(9):780-9 - PubMed
  92. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1995 Mar;28(3):235-69 - PubMed
  93. Thromb Haemost. 1989 Feb 28;61(1):55-6 - PubMed
  94. Can J Psychiatry. 2006 Sep;51(10):635-46 - PubMed
  95. Neurosci Lett. 1995 Dec 15;201(3):195-8 - PubMed
  96. J Comp Neurol. 1999 Aug 30;411(3):359-68 - PubMed
  97. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1978 Apr;35(4):501-16 - PubMed
  98. Hepatology. 1991 Jun;13(6):1142-51 - PubMed
  99. Life Sci. 1983 Dec 12;33(24):2449-54 - PubMed
  100. Brain Res. 1991 Jun 14;551(1-2):28-35 - PubMed
  101. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1979 Jan;208(1):106-12 - PubMed
  102. Addiction. 2004 Apr;99(4):450-60 - PubMed
  103. Life Sci. 1997;60(22):1953-64 - PubMed
  104. Am J Dis Child. 1978 Apr;132(4):360-6 - PubMed
  105. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1989;562:195-207 - PubMed
  106. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1971 Mar 1;109(5):716-23 - PubMed
  107. NIDA Res Monogr. 1981;28:105-31 - PubMed
  108. NIDA Res Monogr. 1979;27:121-7 - PubMed
  109. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1969 Apr;130(4):1126-8 - PubMed
  110. Anim Behav. 1973 Feb;21(1):78-82 - PubMed
  111. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1978 Sep;45(3):797-807 - PubMed
  112. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;59:6-19 - PubMed
  113. Addiction. 1997 Nov;92(11):1561-70 - PubMed
  114. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1986 Sep;18(1):1-10 - PubMed
  115. Brain Behav Evol. 1990;36(4):177-95 - PubMed
  116. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1993 Jun;181(6):358-64 - PubMed
  117. Addict Behav. 1987;12(1):1-6 - PubMed
  118. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1997 Nov-Dec;14(6):529-34 - PubMed
  119. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1993 Apr;13(2):87-99 - PubMed
  120. Experientia. 1980 Mar 15;36(3):329-30 - PubMed
  121. NIDA Res Monogr. 1981;28:132-46 - PubMed
  122. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Sep;193(3 Pt 1):606-10 - PubMed
  123. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1985 Apr;233(1):1-6 - PubMed
  124. Pediatrics. 1982 Aug;70(2):210-3 - PubMed
  125. Drug Metab Dispos. 1981 Jul-Aug;9(4):369-75 - PubMed
  126. Addiction. 2004 Feb;99(2):209-14 - PubMed
  127. Early Hum Dev. 1977 Oct;1(2):159-69 - PubMed
  128. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1975 Mar;192(3):549-54 - PubMed
  129. Pediatrics. 1976 Nov;58(5):681-5 - PubMed
  130. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2002 Mar-Apr;24(2):137-42 - PubMed
  131. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;281:74-89 - PubMed
  132. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1985 Feb;14(3-4):363-72 - PubMed
  133. Brain Res. 1984 Jun 25;304(2):285-90 - PubMed
  134. Am J Perinatol. 2006 Oct;23(7):423-30 - PubMed
  135. Addiction. 1998 Jul;93(7):1033-42 - PubMed
  136. Arch Med Res. 1997 Spring;28(1):61-5 - PubMed
  137. Int J Addict. 1991 Feb;26(2):213-8 - PubMed
  138. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Aug;179(2):459-63 - PubMed
  139. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2004 May;85(2):170-1 - PubMed
  140. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1991 Dec;40(4):771-4 - PubMed
  141. J Neurosci. 1986 May;6(5):1424-32 - PubMed
  142. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 1979 Jan;306(1):93-6 - PubMed
  143. Drug Metab Dispos. 1976 May-Jun;4(3):276-80 - PubMed
  144. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2004 Jul;28(7):1051-9 - PubMed
  145. Drug Metab Dispos. 1997 Dec;25(12):1347-53 - PubMed
  146. Ther Drug Monit. 2003 Aug;25(4):421-32 - PubMed
  147. Eur Addict Res. 2004;10(1):35-40 - PubMed
  148. Arch Intern Med. 1967 Jul;120(1):19-24 - PubMed
  149. Pediatrics. 1985 Feb;75(2):269-74 - PubMed
  150. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl. 1982;74:66-9 - PubMed
  151. Pharmacol Ther. 1983;23(2):253-66 - PubMed
  152. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2005 Feb;84(2):140-4 - PubMed
  153. Environ Health Perspect. 1986 Dec;70:113-29 - PubMed
  154. Lakartidningen. 2000 May 3;97(18):2182-4, 2187-8, 2190 - PubMed
  155. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001 Feb 1;61(3):297-306 - PubMed
  156. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1997;429:289-303 - PubMed
  157. Neurosci Lett. 1988 Oct 31;93(1):101-6 - PubMed
  158. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1982 Jul-Aug;4(4):455-7 - PubMed
  159. Brain Res. 1997 Jan 2;744(1):41-6 - PubMed
  160. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1976 Oct;199(1):141-8 - PubMed
  161. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Aug;189(2):312-7 - PubMed
  162. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1984 Oct;21(4):555-9 - PubMed
  163. Addict Biol. 2004 Mar;9(1):59-65 - PubMed
  164. Evid Based Ment Health. 2004 May;7(2):54 - PubMed
  165. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006 May 20;82(3):250-7 - PubMed
  166. Addiction. 2006 Apr;101(4):608 - PubMed
  167. Chirality. 2004 Jan;16(1):36-44 - PubMed
  168. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2002 Nov;42(5):569-73 - PubMed
  169. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1984 Jul-Aug;6(4):319-23 - PubMed
  170. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2001 Jul;70(1):48-57 - PubMed
  171. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. 2001 Sep 15;761(1):85-92 - PubMed
  172. Brain Res. 1998 Aug 31;804(1):87-94 - PubMed
  173. Clin J Pain. 2003 May-Jun;19(3):148-55 - PubMed
  174. BMJ. 1998 Feb 7;316(7129):426-8 - PubMed
  175. J Clin Psychiatry. 1984 Sep;45(9 Pt 2):25-8 - PubMed
  176. Addict Biol. 2003 Sep;8(3):343-50 - PubMed
  177. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1994 Jul 15;80(1-2):158-62 - PubMed
  178. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2001 Jul;21(1):27-34 - PubMed
  179. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1995 Jul-Aug;17(4):419-23 - PubMed
  180. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2005 Feb;84(2):145-50 - PubMed
  181. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2000 Mar-Apr;22(2):193-203 - PubMed
  182. JAMA. 2002 Aug 21;288(7):850-6 - PubMed
  183. NIDA Res Monogr. 1978;(22):146-58 - PubMed
  184. Am J Perinatol. 2006 Jul;23(5):287-94 - PubMed
  185. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(3):CD002208 - PubMed
  186. Drug Metab Rev. 1975;4(1):39-73 - PubMed
  187. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Feb 15;61(4):554-63 - PubMed
  188. Addict Biol. 2003 Sep;8(3):337-42 - PubMed
  189. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1999 Jul;145(2):162-74 - PubMed
  190. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2000 Oct-Dec;32(4):371-8 - PubMed
  191. N Z Med J. 1999 Jan 22;112(1080):12-3 - PubMed
  192. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2005 Nov;61(10):763-8 - PubMed
  193. Int J Dev Neurosci. 1986;4(3):293-302 - PubMed
  194. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1989;98(1):141-3 - PubMed
  195. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007 Mar 16;87(2-3):131-8 - PubMed
  196. Eur J Pharmacol. 1978 May 1;49(1):87-93 - PubMed
  197. Neuropharmacology. 1982 Aug;21(8):757-62 - PubMed
  198. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1989 Feb 1;45(2):275-81 - PubMed
  199. Brain Res Bull. 1988 Apr;20(4):473-8 - PubMed
  200. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1986 Jul-Aug;8(4):353-5 - PubMed
  201. Addiction. 2002 Mar;97(3):265-77 - PubMed
  202. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005 Jul;79(1):1-10 - PubMed
  203. Acta Neurol Scand. 1979 May;59(5):248-62 - PubMed
  204. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1992;28(1):15-9 - PubMed
  205. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand. 1974 Dec;12(4):299-316 - PubMed
  206. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1991 Mar-Apr;13(2):235-40 - PubMed
  207. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1988 Jan;27(1):81-5 - PubMed
  208. Life Sci. 1975 Oct 10;17(7):1119-25 - PubMed
  209. J Nucl Med. 1988 Jul;29(7):1207-11 - PubMed
  210. Pharm World Sci. 1998 Aug;20(4):139-48 - PubMed
  211. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1993;44(2):189-94 - PubMed
  212. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1974 Apr;189(1):66-71 - PubMed
  213. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1990 Dec 15;57(2):296-8 - PubMed
  214. J Hum Lact. 2004 Feb;20(1):62-71 - PubMed
  215. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1974 Dec 15;120(8):1105-11 - PubMed
  216. Life Sci. 1981 Sep 14;29(11):1137-42 - PubMed
  217. Life Sci. 1988;43(16):1319-24 - PubMed
  218. Addiction. 1997 Nov;92(11):1571-9 - PubMed
  219. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 2000 Dec 8;84(1-2):106-14 - PubMed
  220. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1975 Aug;14(8):751-3 passim - PubMed
  221. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1980 Nov;28(5):667-72 - PubMed
  222. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001 Jun 1;63(1):97-103 - PubMed
  223. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003 Nov;28(11):1973-82 - PubMed
  224. J Hum Lact. 1997 Sep;13(3):227-30 - PubMed
  225. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004 May;14(3):209-16 - PubMed
  226. Addiction. 2003 Jan;98(1):103-10 - PubMed
  227. J Clin Psychiatry. 1984 Sep;45(9 Pt 2):4-6 - PubMed
  228. Med J Aust. 1999 Feb 1;170(3):114-8 - PubMed
  229. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1991 Apr-Jun;23(2):191-201 - PubMed
  230. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005 Jun 15;69(12):1869-78 - PubMed
  231. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 May 21;70(2 Suppl):S87-101 - PubMed
  232. Drug Alcohol Rev. 1994;13(3):327-35 - PubMed
  233. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1991 Jul;21(1):70-80 - PubMed
  234. Ther Drug Monit. 1996 Jun;18(3):221-7 - PubMed
  235. Pediatrics. 1974 Sep;54(3):300-5 - PubMed
  236. Exp Eye Res. 1977 Jun;24(6):547-52 - PubMed
  237. Ann Pharmacother. 2006 Mar;40(3):501-5 - PubMed
  238. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;59:73-83 - PubMed
  239. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1987 Apr;41(4):392-401 - PubMed
  240. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1985 Nov-Dec;7(6):639-42 - PubMed
  241. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1976 Apr;197(1):171-9 - PubMed
  242. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1979 Jun;10(6):889-94 - PubMed
  243. Bull Narc. 1979 Jul-Dec;31(3-4):1-58 - PubMed
  244. Obstet Gynecol. 1993 Jun;81(6):936-40 - PubMed
  245. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2002 Sep;23(2):87-92 - PubMed
  246. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1986 Mar-Apr;11(2):87-106 - PubMed
  247. Monogr Neural Sci. 1983;9:159-68 - PubMed
  248. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1995 Mar;50(3):413-9 - PubMed
  249. J Neurochem. 1991 Nov;57(5):1470-7 - PubMed
  250. Physiol Rev. 1997 Jul;77(3):805-36 - PubMed
  251. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;60:88-97 - PubMed
  252. Am J Dis Child. 1980 Nov;134(11):1049-51 - PubMed
  253. Addiction. 2000 Feb;95(2):239-44 - PubMed
  254. Science. 1983 Sep 16;221(4616):1179-80 - PubMed
  255. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1995 Feb;50(2):277-86 - PubMed
  256. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1998 Mar;25(1):139-51 - PubMed
  257. Eur Addict Res. 1998;4 Suppl 1:32-6 - PubMed
  258. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Nov;187(5):1184-8 - PubMed
  259. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 2004 Jul 19;151(1-2):149-57 - PubMed
  260. Clin Perinatol. 1991 Mar;18(1):1-22 - PubMed
  261. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1979;7 Suppl 3:281S-286S - PubMed
  262. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1997 Apr 14;45(1-2):131-4 - PubMed
  263. J Neurochem. 1991 Dec;57(6):1978-84 - PubMed
  264. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005 Jul 20;(3):CD003409 - PubMed
  265. J Hum Lact. 2000 May;16(2):115-20 - PubMed
  266. N Y State J Med. 1977 Aug;77(9):1409-12 - PubMed
  267. Life Sci. 1998;62(3):221-8 - PubMed
  268. Psychol Bull. 1982 Sep;92(2):453-68 - PubMed
  269. J Hum Lact. 2004 Aug;20(3):322-6 - PubMed
  270. J Pharm Sci. 1976 May;65(5):712-6 - PubMed
  271. Anesth Analg. 1985 Jul;64(7):658-66 - PubMed
  272. J Matern Fetal Med. 1996 Nov-Dec;5(6):348-54 - PubMed
  273. J Pediatr. 1973 Dec;83(6):1055-61 - PubMed
  274. NIDA Res Monogr. 1983 Apr;43:184-9 - PubMed
  275. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1977 Aug;228(2):300-3 - PubMed
  276. Lancet. 1999 Jan 16;353(9148):221-6 - PubMed
  277. J Pediatr. 1976 Nov;89(5):842-6 - PubMed
  278. NIDA Res Monogr. 1995;149:58-77 - PubMed
  279. Experientia. 1977 Nov 15;33(11):1486-7 - PubMed
  280. J Subst Abuse. 2000;12(4):405-14 - PubMed
  281. NIDA Res Monogr. 1982 Apr;41:488-94 - PubMed
  282. Neuropharmacology. 1977 Jul-Aug;16(7-8):473-8 - PubMed
  283. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1987 May;27(2):92-8 - PubMed
  284. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. 1992;70:205-30 - PubMed
  285. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs. 2002 Mar;15(4):76-85 - PubMed
  286. Biol Psychiatry. 1985 Jan;20(1):66-72 - PubMed
  287. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1981 Dec;15(6):887-94 - PubMed
  288. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92(3):379-85 - PubMed
  289. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2002 Apr;36(2):224-8 - PubMed
  290. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Jan 25;(1):CD001333 - PubMed
  291. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1981;362:231-8 - PubMed
  292. Int J Addict. 1995 Jan;30(2):207-17 - PubMed
  293. Pharmacol Res. 2004 Dec;50(6):551-9 - PubMed
  294. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1991 Dec;38(6):1387-406 - PubMed
  295. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1977 May;16(5):418-23 - PubMed
  296. Addiction. 2000 Aug;95(8):1141-4 - PubMed
  297. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1976 Nov;199(2):368-74 - PubMed
  298. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1999 May;80(3):F178-82 - PubMed
  299. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1985 Sep;16(1):1-8 - PubMed
  300. J Comp Neurol. 1989 Mar 1;281(1):13-22 - PubMed
  301. Ann Intern Med. 1999 Apr 6;130(7):584-90 - PubMed
  302. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1978 Nov;9(5):665-72 - PubMed
  303. J Paediatr Child Health. 1991 Apr;27(2):96-100 - PubMed
  304. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1998 May;60(1):97-104 - PubMed
  305. Biochem Pharmacol. 1994 Jul 5;48(1):59-64 - PubMed
  306. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1994 Nov;404:40-6 - PubMed
  307. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1997 Nov;62(5):569-71 - PubMed
  308. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1991 Sep;32(3):295-302 - PubMed
  309. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;281:273-87 - PubMed
  310. NIDA Res Monogr. 1981;28:36-51 - PubMed
  311. Drug Metab Dispos. 1984 Sep-Oct;12(5):577-81 - PubMed
  312. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1985 Mar;22(3):441-8 - PubMed
  313. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1987 Jul-Aug;9(4):311-3 - PubMed
  314. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1995 Feb;272(2):505-10 - PubMed
  315. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2000 Nov;50(5):427-40 - PubMed
  316. Addiction. 1997 Nov;92(11):1553-60 - PubMed
  317. Eur J Neurosci. 2000 Apr;12(4):1281-93 - PubMed
  318. Life Sci. 1982 Sep 20-27;31(12-13):1401-4 - PubMed
  319. Eur J Pharmacol. 1983 May 20;90(1):57-63 - PubMed
  320. Mol Pharmacol. 1993 Jul;44(1):173-9 - PubMed
  321. Brain Res Bull. 1994;34(4):395-406 - PubMed
  322. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1991 Feb 22;58(2):237-41 - PubMed
  323. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001 Sep;298(3):1021-32 - PubMed
  324. Med J Aust. 1999 Jul 5;171(1):26-30 - PubMed
  325. Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1983;6(2):125-37 - PubMed
  326. South Med J. 1976 May;69(5):570-5 - PubMed
  327. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol. 1973;8(0):33-43 - PubMed
  328. J Pediatr. 1976 Apr;88(4 Pt 1):642-5 - PubMed
  329. Toxicol Sci. 2004 Nov;82(1):237-49 - PubMed
  330. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1989 Mar;16(3):169-78 - PubMed
  331. Brain Res. 1999 Aug 28;839(2):313-22 - PubMed
  332. N Z Med J. 1979 Apr 11;89(633):255-7 - PubMed
  333. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2004 Jan;89(1):F33-6 - PubMed
  334. Life Sci. 1980 Mar 17;26(11):861-7 - PubMed
  335. N Engl J Med. 1973 Dec 6;289(23):1216-20 - PubMed
  336. Forensic Sci Int. 2003 Apr 23;133(1-2):57-62 - PubMed
  337. Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Nov;92(5):854-8 - PubMed
  338. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1975 Mar 1;121(5):617-21 - PubMed
  339. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2004 Jan-Feb;26(1):23-34 - PubMed
  340. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1982-1983;9(4):383-95 - PubMed
  341. Behav Neurosci. 2003 Jun;117(3):446-54 - PubMed
  342. Addict Biol. 2005 Jun;10(2):149-55 - PubMed
  343. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977 Nov 15;129(6):679-86 - PubMed
  344. Dev Neurosci. 1982;5(5-6):385-93 - PubMed
  345. Addiction. 1998 Apr;93(4):549-59 - PubMed
  346. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1989 Jan;23(1):63-71 - PubMed
  347. Addict Behav. 1999 Jul-Aug;24(4):559-63 - PubMed
  348. Pain. 2000 Jan;84(1):105-109 - PubMed
  349. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1994 Nov;404:36-9 - PubMed
  350. Life Sci. 1979 Mar 26;24(13):1223-9 - PubMed
  351. Neuropharmacology. 1987 Sep;26(9):1445-7 - PubMed
  352. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1973 Dec;187(3):575-80 - PubMed
  353. J Anal Toxicol. 1996 Oct;20(6):369-78 - PubMed
  354. Pharmacol Rev. 2004 Sep;56(3):351-69 - PubMed
  355. JAMA. 2005 Apr 6;293(13):1617-25 - PubMed
  356. Biol Neonate. 1980;38(3-4):185-96 - PubMed
  357. Biochem Pharmacol. 2004 Aug 1;68(3):583-91 - PubMed
  358. Experientia. 1982 Oct 15;38(10):1214-6 - PubMed
  359. Physiol Behav. 1997 Sep;62(3):501-8 - PubMed
  360. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003 Sep;47(8):1031-3 - PubMed
  361. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005 Jan 1;69(1):187-97 - PubMed
  362. Brain Res. 1991 Mar 22;544(1):79-85 - PubMed
  363. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001 Aug;298(2):797-804 - PubMed
  364. J Dev Physiol. 1991 Jan;15(1):33-44 - PubMed
  365. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 May 21;70(2 Suppl):S49-57 - PubMed
  366. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Dec;52(6):681-5 - PubMed
  367. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2004 Sep;28(9):1356-61 - PubMed
  368. Addiction. 2006 Feb;101(2):275-81 - PubMed
  369. Neuropharmacology. 1978 Aug;17(8):655-7 - PubMed
  370. Biol Neonate. 1977;31(5-6):271-82 - PubMed
  371. Pharmacol Ther. 1999 Dec;84(3):429-45 - PubMed
  372. Life Sci. 1984 Nov 12;35(20):2057-64 - PubMed
  373. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1979;11 Suppl:7-13 - PubMed
  374. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1993 Jul-Aug;15(4):275-7 - PubMed
  375. Addict Biol. 2004 Mar;9(1):67-72 - PubMed
  376. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977 Oct 15;129(4):417-24 - PubMed
  377. Brain Res. 1987 May 26;412(1):68-72 - PubMed
  378. Addict Dis. 1975;2(1-2):169-78 - PubMed
  379. Eur J Pediatr. 1999 Jun;158(6):488-92 - PubMed
  380. J Clin Child Psychol. 1999 Mar;28(1):58-69 - PubMed
  381. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999 Apr;47(4):403-12 - PubMed
  382. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2006 Feb;13(2):108-11 - PubMed
  383. Brain Res. 1986 Aug;393(2):233-46 - PubMed
  384. J Mol Neurosci. 1993 Spring;4(1):21-8 - PubMed
  385. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1979;11 Suppl:3-6 - PubMed
  386. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999 Jul;48(1):43-52 - PubMed
  387. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1975 Jan 15;121(2):233-7 - PubMed
  388. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1977 Sep;7(3):281-4 - PubMed
  389. Brain Res Bull. 1994;35(1):69-72 - PubMed
  390. Anal Biochem. 2002 Jul 1;306(1):31-9 - PubMed
  391. J Biomed Sci. 2000 May-Jun;7(3):253-7 - PubMed
  392. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Sep;193(3 Pt 1):611-7 - PubMed
  393. Addiction. 1999 Jul;94(7):961-72 - PubMed
  394. Pediatrics. 2006 Jun;117(6):e1163-9 - PubMed
  395. NIDA Res Monogr. 1978;(22):218-49 - PubMed
  396. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1992 Oct 23;69(2):207-14 - PubMed
  397. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1985 Jun;22(6):949-53 - PubMed
  398. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1979 May;10(5):743-9 - PubMed
  399. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1977 Nov;203(2):340-6 - PubMed
  400. Dev Neurosci. 1980;3(4-6):224-34 - PubMed
  401. J Clin Psychiatry. 1984 Sep;45(9 Pt 2):42-5 - PubMed
  402. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1989 Oct;16(10):789-97 - PubMed
  403. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 1993;29(3):439-44 - PubMed
  404. J Pediatr. 2001 Mar;138(3):344-8 - PubMed
  405. Pediatrics. 1971 Sep;48(3):353-8 - PubMed
  406. Brain Res. 1992 Nov 20;596(1-2):149-56 - PubMed
  407. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001 Sep;25(9):1335-41 - PubMed
  408. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 Feb;63(2):210-8 - PubMed
  409. Drug Metab Dispos. 1978 May-Jun;6(3):321-8 - PubMed
  410. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1997 Oct;58(2):337-43 - PubMed
  411. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1985 Aug;13(4):355-72 - PubMed
  412. Brain Behav Evol. 1988;31(6):369-90 - PubMed
  413. Drug Metab Dispos. 1984 Nov-Dec;12(6):677-82 - PubMed
  414. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1996 Dec;55(4):607-13 - PubMed
  415. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1975 May 1;122(1):43-6 - PubMed
  416. Biol Neonate. 1978;34(1-2):48-54 - PubMed
  417. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;60:110-47 - PubMed
  418. Clin Perinatol. 1999 Mar;26(1):173-83 - PubMed

Publication Types