Display options
Cite
Cerritelli F, Frasch MG, Antonelli MC, et al. A Review on the Vagus Nerve and Autonomic Nervous System During Fetal Development: Searching for Critical Windows. Front Neurosci. 2021;15:721605doi: 10.3389/fnins.2021.721605.
Cerritelli, F., Frasch, M. G., Antonelli, M. C., Viglione, C., Vecchi, S., Chiera, M., & Manzotti, A. (2021). A Review on the Vagus Nerve and Autonomic Nervous System During Fetal Development: Searching for Critical Windows. Frontiers in neuroscience, 15721605. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.721605
Cerritelli, Francesco, et al. "A Review on the Vagus Nerve and Autonomic Nervous System During Fetal Development: Searching for Critical Windows." Frontiers in neuroscience vol. 15 (2021): 721605. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.721605
Cerritelli F, Frasch MG, Antonelli MC, Viglione C, Vecchi S, Chiera M, Manzotti A. A Review on the Vagus Nerve and Autonomic Nervous System During Fetal Development: Searching for Critical Windows. Front Neurosci. 2021 Sep 20;15:721605. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2021.721605. eCollection 2021. PMID: 34616274; PMCID: PMC8488382.
Copy Download .nbib Format: NLM
Share it on

Front Neurosci. 2021 Sep 20;15:721605. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2021.721605. eCollection 2021.

A Review on the Vagus Nerve and Autonomic Nervous System During Fetal Development: Searching for Critical Windows.

Frontiers in neuroscience

Francesco Cerritelli, Martin G Frasch, Marta C Antonelli, Chiara Viglione, Stefano Vecchi, Marco Chiera, Andrea Manzotti

Affiliations

  1. Research and Assistance for Infants to Support Experience Lab, Foundation Center for Osteopathic Medicine Collaboration, Pescara, Italy.
  2. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States.
  3. Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis", Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
  4. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
  5. Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, "V. Buzzi" Children's Hospital, Azienda Socio-Sanitaria Territoriale Fatebenefratelli Sacco, Milan, Italy.
  6. Research Department, Istituto Osteopatia Milano, Milan, Italy.

PMID: 34616274 PMCID: PMC8488382 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.721605

Abstract

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is one of the main biological systems that regulates the body's physiology. Autonomic nervous system regulatory capacity begins before birth as the sympathetic and parasympathetic activity contributes significantly to the fetus' development. In particular, several studies have shown how vagus nerve is involved in many vital processes during fetal, perinatal, and postnatal life: from the regulation of inflammation through the anti-inflammatory cholinergic pathway, which may affect the functioning of each organ, to the production of hormones involved in bioenergetic metabolism. In addition, the vagus nerve has been recognized as the primary afferent pathway capable of transmitting information to the brain from every organ of the body. Therefore, this hypothesis paper aims to review the development of ANS during fetal and perinatal life, focusing particularly on the vagus nerve, to identify possible "critical windows" that could impact its maturation. These "critical windows" could help clinicians know when to monitor fetuses to effectively assess the developmental status of both ANS and specifically the vagus nerve. In addition, this paper will focus on which factors-i.e., fetal characteristics and behaviors, maternal lifestyle and pathologies, placental health and dysfunction, labor, incubator conditions, and drug exposure-may have an impact on the development of the vagus during the above-mentioned "critical window" and how. This analysis could help clinicians and stakeholders define precise guidelines for improving the management of fetuses and newborns, particularly to reduce the potential adverse environmental impacts on ANS development that may lead to persistent long-term consequences. Since the development of ANS and the vagus influence have been shown to be reflected in cardiac variability, this paper will rely in particular on studies using fetal heart rate variability (fHRV) to monitor the continued growth and health of both animal and human fetuses. In fact, fHRV is a non-invasive marker whose changes have been associated with ANS development, vagal modulation, systemic and neurological inflammatory reactions, and even fetal distress during labor.

Copyright © 2021 Cerritelli, Frasch, Antonelli, Viglione, Vecchi, Chiera and Manzotti.

Keywords: autonomic nervous system; cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway; critical window; fetal development; heart rate variability; maternal health; vagus nerve

Conflict of interest statement

MF has patents on aECG (WO2018160890A1) and EEG technologies for fetal monitoring (US9215999). The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financi

References

  1. J Perinatol. 2019 May;39(5):608-618 - PubMed
  2. Physiol Meas. 2017 May;38(5):R61-R88 - PubMed
  3. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982 Jun 1;143(3):243-9 - PubMed
  4. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021 Apr 6;118(14): - PubMed
  5. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015 May;212(5):653.e1-16 - PubMed
  6. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006 Dec;30(12):2055-64 - PubMed
  7. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jul;191(1):217-24 - PubMed
  8. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2011 Mar;214(1):297-307 - PubMed
  9. Dev Psychol. 2004 May;40(3):445-56 - PubMed
  10. Pflugers Arch. 2013 May;465(5):573-84 - PubMed
  11. Front Physiol. 2017 May 17;8:313 - PubMed
  12. Front Physiol. 2017 Sep 28;8:721 - PubMed
  13. Front Behav Neurosci. 2021 Jan 13;14:601939 - PubMed
  14. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Feb 03;2:CD006066 - PubMed
  15. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2017 Sep;39(9):769-771 - PubMed
  16. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2010 Apr;34(4):681-92 - PubMed
  17. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2005 Jul;43(4):481-6 - PubMed
  18. Med Pregl. 2001 Jan-Feb;54(1-2):34-7 - PubMed
  19. Front Neurosci. 2020 Sep 25;14:561186 - PubMed
  20. J Exp Med. 2019 Jan 7;216(1):41-59 - PubMed
  21. Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1992;18(3-4):175-83 - PubMed
  22. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2005 Jun;230(6):376-88 - PubMed
  23. Indian Pediatr. 2018 Jan 15;55(1):17-21 - PubMed
  24. Early Hum Dev. 1991 Dec;27(3):223-32 - PubMed
  25. Ann Nutr Metab. 2019;74(2):93-106 - PubMed
  26. Rev Bras Ter Intensiva. 2019 Oct 14;31(3):296-302 - PubMed
  27. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009 Mar;296(3):R702-7 - PubMed
  28. Pediatrics. 2017 Apr;139(Suppl 1):S38-S49 - PubMed
  29. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2021 Jan 25;: - PubMed
  30. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998 Jul;105(7):749-55 - PubMed
  31. Endocrinology. 2013 Mar;154(3):1168-80 - PubMed
  32. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989 Sep;161(3):771-4 - PubMed
  33. Jpn J Nurs Sci. 2010 Jun;7(1):76-83 - PubMed
  34. Early Hum Dev. 1979 Jul;3(2):127-39 - PubMed
  35. Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Feb;115(2 Pt 2):419-420 - PubMed
  36. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2018 Dec;97(12):1486-1490 - PubMed
  37. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2009 Dec;86(6):672-7 - PubMed
  38. J Physiol. 2018 Dec;596(23):5709-5722 - PubMed
  39. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2015 May;41(5):662-9 - PubMed
  40. J Neurosci. 2013 Dec 4;33(49):19238-42 - PubMed
  41. J R Soc Interface. 2018 Jan;15(138): - PubMed
  42. Physiol Meas. 2014 Oct;35(10):1943-59 - PubMed
  43. J Reprod Fertil. 1980 Sep;60(1):193-9 - PubMed
  44. Clin Ther. 2015 May 1;37(5):954-67 - PubMed
  45. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e22100 - PubMed
  46. J Perinatol. 2017 May;37(5):558-562 - PubMed
  47. Clin Perinatol. 2013 Mar;40(1):27-51 - PubMed
  48. Clin Nurs Res. 2013 Aug;22(3):337-58 - PubMed
  49. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2006 May;79(5):379-86 - PubMed
  50. Obstet Gynecol. 1991 Dec;78(6):1103-7 - PubMed
  51. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1980 Mar;10(3):187-201 - PubMed
  52. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2014 May;176:112-8 - PubMed
  53. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2017 Apr;18(4):349-354 - PubMed
  54. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011 Feb;300(2):R330-9 - PubMed
  55. Anesth Analg. 1990 Dec;71(6):679-83 - PubMed
  56. Clin Auton Res. 2021 Jun;31(3):415-424 - PubMed
  57. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2018 Dec;28:29-37 - PubMed
  58. Sleep Med Rev. 2018 Oct;41:197-219 - PubMed
  59. Oncotarget. 2017 Aug 10;8(59):100717-100723 - PubMed
  60. Semin Immunopathol. 2020 Aug;42(4):397-412 - PubMed
  61. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2019 Nov;221(5):383-392.e3 - PubMed
  62. Child Dev. 2007 Nov-Dec;78(6):1788-98 - PubMed
  63. Cardiovasc Res. 1990 Mar;24(3):210-3 - PubMed
  64. Clin Perinatol. 1982 Feb;9(1):55-62 - PubMed
  65. J Neurophysiol. 2009 Mar;101(3):1141-50 - PubMed
  66. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998 Dec;105(12):1312-4 - PubMed
  67. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2008;87(7):745-50 - PubMed
  68. J Med Assoc Thai. 2006 Sep;89(9):1376-80 - PubMed
  69. Front Microbiol. 2016 Jul 14;7:1031 - PubMed
  70. Pediatrics. 2019 Sep;144(3): - PubMed
  71. Front Physiol. 2021 Apr 08;12:652828 - PubMed
  72. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2015 Mar;73(3):199-213 - PubMed
  73. SAGE Open Nurs. 2019 Jul 24;5:2377960819861486 - PubMed
  74. Early Hum Dev. 2009 Oct;85(10):633-8 - PubMed
  75. Early Hum Dev. 1986 Dec;14(3-4):259-65 - PubMed
  76. Brain Behav Immun. 2013 Jul;31:189-96 - PubMed
  77. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2018 Jun 27;18(1):264 - PubMed
  78. J Gastrointest Surg. 2014 Aug;18(8):1495-506 - PubMed
  79. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019 Nov 5;8(21):e012629 - PubMed
  80. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jan 27;1:CD010333 - PubMed
  81. Midwifery. 2018 Jan;56:102-111 - PubMed
  82. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2012 Jan;37(1):87-93 - PubMed
  83. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020 Oct;117:165-183 - PubMed
  84. Physiol Meas. 2021 Jun 17;42(5): - PubMed
  85. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Jun;107(6):475-80 - PubMed
  86. Dev Psychobiol. 2001 Jan;38(1):56-66 - PubMed
  87. Pregnancy Hypertens. 2020 Apr;20:56-68 - PubMed
  88. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021 Jan;51(1):346-356 - PubMed
  89. Neurobiol Stress. 2018 Aug 15;9:48-54 - PubMed
  90. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2008 Feb;100(2):141-6 - PubMed
  91. Early Hum Dev. 1985 Nov;12(2):99-120 - PubMed
  92. Am J Ind Med. 1992;21(3):397-408 - PubMed
  93. Front Hum Neurosci. 2015 Apr 07;9:147 - PubMed
  94. Early Hum Dev. 2008 Jul;84(7):433-9 - PubMed
  95. J Neurosci Methods. 2021 Aug 1;360:109257 - PubMed
  96. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Mar 1;108(9):3461-2 - PubMed
  97. Environ Health Perspect. 2019 Nov;127(11):117001 - PubMed
  98. Lupus. 2017 Apr;26(5):552-558 - PubMed
  99. Semergen. 2016 Sep;42(6):e59-64 - PubMed
  100. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2016 Jun;160:127-33 - PubMed
  101. J Neuroinflammation. 2016 May 10;13(1):103 - PubMed
  102. Perspect Biol Med. 2010 Summer;53(3):330-40 - PubMed
  103. J Clin Pathol. 2021 Jan;74(1):10-18 - PubMed
  104. J Perinatol. 2000 Dec;20(8 Pt 2):S31-6 - PubMed
  105. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Oct;181(4):816-21 - PubMed
  106. Nurs Outlook. 2019 Mar - Apr;67(2):169-189 - PubMed
  107. Physiol Meas. 2016 Sep;37(9):1436-46 - PubMed
  108. Saudi Med J. 2008 Feb;29(2):218-23 - PubMed
  109. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018 Jan;87:27-34 - PubMed
  110. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2014 Nov;100(11):863-76 - PubMed
  111. Front Neurosci. 2013 Jan 02;6:188 - PubMed
  112. Eur Heart J. 1996 Mar;17(3):354-81 - PubMed
  113. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1032:63-84 - PubMed
  114. Heliyon. 2019 Mar 07;5(3):e01300 - PubMed
  115. Med Hypotheses. 2009 Feb;72(2):143-6 - PubMed
  116. Pharmacol Ther. 2012 Jul;135(1):71-7 - PubMed
  117. Lancet. 1989 Nov 4;2(8671):1065-7 - PubMed
  118. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2015;28(14):1664-8 - PubMed
  119. J Perinatol. 2017 Jun;37(6):668-672 - PubMed
  120. Comput Cardiol. 2000;27:197-200 - PubMed
  121. PLoS One. 2014 Sep 30;9(9):e108119 - PubMed
  122. Hypertension. 2009 Jul;54(1):63-70 - PubMed
  123. Nutrients. 2019 Aug 07;11(8): - PubMed
  124. Dev Biol. 2019 Feb 1;446(1):22-33 - PubMed
  125. Semin Nephrol. 2011 Jan;31(1):70-85 - PubMed
  126. Physiol Meas. 2019 Jul 03;40(6):064002 - PubMed
  127. Am J Perinatol. 2017 Jun;34(7):668-675 - PubMed
  128. J Perinat Med. 2000;28(5):377-82 - PubMed
  129. Nutrients. 2016 Jun 04;8(6): - PubMed
  130. Sleep Med. 2003 Nov;4(6):569-77 - PubMed
  131. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2015 Sep;80(3):vii;1-94 - PubMed
  132. Biol Psychol. 2012 Mar;89(3):584-90 - PubMed
  133. Nutrients. 2015 Aug 17;7(8):6924-37 - PubMed
  134. Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Oct;92(4 Pt 2):691-3 - PubMed
  135. Epidemiology. 2008 Nov;19(6):851-9 - PubMed
  136. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Sep;50(3):652-83 - PubMed
  137. Pediatr Res. 2019 May;85(6):830-834 - PubMed
  138. Early Hum Dev. 1982 Dec;7(4):301-22 - PubMed
  139. Front Physiol. 2019 Aug 07;10:922 - PubMed
  140. Front Cell Neurosci. 2021 Jan 15;14:612705 - PubMed
  141. Reprod Sci. 2009 May;16(5):509-17 - PubMed
  142. Early Hum Dev. 1990 Sep;23(3):233-46 - PubMed
  143. Cardiovasc J Afr. 2016 Mar-Apr;27(2):89-94 - PubMed
  144. PLoS One. 2013 Sep 18;8(9):e74431 - PubMed
  145. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016 May;214(5):627.e1-627.e16 - PubMed
  146. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2015 Sep;23(9):539-49 - PubMed
  147. Front Physiol. 2020 Sep 30;11:578898 - PubMed
  148. J Am Board Fam Med. 2009 Mar-Apr;22(2):158-68 - PubMed
  149. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2011 Mar-Apr;33(2):240-3 - PubMed
  150. J Perinatol. 2021 May;41(5):928-939 - PubMed
  151. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2019 Oct;39:100703 - PubMed
  152. Pediatr Res. 2019 Jun;85(7):1032-1040 - PubMed
  153. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1963 Nov 15;87:814-26 - PubMed
  154. Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1781:341-352 - PubMed
  155. Epidemiology. 2011 Sep;22(5):738-44 - PubMed
  156. Front Psychol. 2016 Feb 12;7:80 - PubMed
  157. Hypertension. 2008 Apr;51(4):960-9 - PubMed
  158. BJGP Open. 2019 Nov 12;: - PubMed
  159. Nutrients. 2015 Apr 24;7(5):3067-77 - PubMed
  160. J Leukoc Biol. 1998 Mar;63(3):281-7 - PubMed
  161. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2018 Jul 1;118(7):487-488 - PubMed
  162. J Inflamm Res. 2020 May 25;13:245-254 - PubMed
  163. Clin Perinatol. 2012 Dec;39(4):769-83 - PubMed
  164. J Anat. 2021 Jul;239(1):32-45 - PubMed
  165. Clin Perinatol. 2016 Sep;43(3):395-407 - PubMed
  166. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2006;21(1):144-7 - PubMed
  167. Hum Brain Mapp. 2017 Jan;38(1):27-40 - PubMed
  168. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris). 2008 Feb;37 Suppl 1:S56-64 - PubMed
  169. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today. 2016 Sep;108(3):207-223 - PubMed
  170. Auton Neurosci. 2007 Oct 30;136(1-2):105-9 - PubMed
  171. Early Hum Dev. 2010 May;86(5):319-25 - PubMed
  172. Sci Rep. 2017 Mar 28;7:45645 - PubMed
  173. Dev Period Med. 2019;23(2):117-124 - PubMed
  174. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2003 Jan;82(1):1-9 - PubMed
  175. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2019 Nov;30(7):698-707 - PubMed
  176. Cell Tissue Res. 2009 May;336(2):287-97 - PubMed
  177. Pediatrics. 2004 Feb;113(2):368-75 - PubMed
  178. Med Hypotheses. 2006;67(1):6-14 - PubMed
  179. Mayo Clin Proc. 1993 Oct;68(10):988-1001 - PubMed
  180. Nutrients. 2015 Mar 18;7(3):2001-14 - PubMed
  181. J Comp Neurol. 2016 Apr 15;524(6):1259-69 - PubMed
  182. Transl Psychiatry. 2015 Apr 07;5:e545 - PubMed
  183. Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Jan;115(1):77-83 - PubMed
  184. Physiol Meas. 2019 Jul 01;40(6):065004 - PubMed
  185. Microbiome. 2016 Jun 23;4(1):29 - PubMed
  186. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020 Aug 12;10:413 - PubMed
  187. Pediatr Res. 2021 Jul;90(1):131-139 - PubMed
  188. Sci Transl Med. 2014 May 21;6(237):237ra65 - PubMed
  189. Front Pediatr. 2021 May 05;9:593889 - PubMed
  190. PLoS One. 2017 Jul 12;12(7):e0180167 - PubMed
  191. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Sep 28;107(39):16757-8 - PubMed
  192. Korean J Pediatr. 2014 Mar;57(3):101-9 - PubMed
  193. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2012 Sep;94(9):693-700 - PubMed
  194. PLoS One. 2014 Aug 20;9(8):e104193 - PubMed
  195. Neuropharmacology. 2019 Jan;144:70-81 - PubMed
  196. Occup Environ Med. 2015 Aug;72(8):587-93 - PubMed
  197. Horm Behav. 2016 Apr;80:82-91 - PubMed
  198. Hum Reprod. 2012 Mar;27(3):910-20 - PubMed
  199. Nurs Res. 2012 Jul-Aug;61(4):242-51 - PubMed
  200. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2008 Jul;93(4):F298-301 - PubMed
  201. Clin Anat. 2014 Mar;27(2):201-9 - PubMed
  202. Pediatr Res. 2017 Sep;82(3):438-443 - PubMed
  203. J Physiol. 2020 Jan;598(2):249-263 - PubMed
  204. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2012 Apr;1252:17-24 - PubMed
  205. Dev Biol. 2018 Dec 1;444 Suppl 1:S98-S109 - PubMed
  206. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1992;662:118-34 - PubMed
  207. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2018 Dec 1;315(6):R1123-R1153 - PubMed
  208. Pediatr Res. 2021 Mar 2;: - PubMed
  209. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Dec;191(6):2041-6 - PubMed
  210. Clin J Pain. 2006 Nov-Dec;22(9):757-64 - PubMed
  211. Turk J Obstet Gynecol. 2019 Dec;16(4):213-218 - PubMed
  212. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998 May 1;840:45-50 - PubMed
  213. Environ Res. 2020 Feb;181:108894 - PubMed
  214. Physiol Meas. 2009 Jan;30(1):N1-10 - PubMed
  215. Infant Child Dev. 2011 Feb;20(1):106-118 - PubMed
  216. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2017 Mar;102(2):F183-F187 - PubMed
  217. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2013 Dec;68(12):811-24 - PubMed
  218. J Clin Monit Comput. 2019 Oct;33(5):747-748 - PubMed
  219. J Perinatol. 2017 Aug;37(8):953-957 - PubMed
  220. Biol Res Nurs. 2008 Oct;10(2):134-44 - PubMed
  221. J Clin Invest. 2007 Feb;117(2):289-96 - PubMed
  222. Dev Psychopathol. 2018 Oct;30(4):1269-1303 - PubMed
  223. Transl Psychiatry. 2021 Jan 21;11(1):71 - PubMed
  224. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2020;47(5):373-386 - PubMed
  225. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2004 Jun;18(3):359-79 - PubMed
  226. Front Pediatr. 2014 May 05;2:38 - PubMed
  227. Neuropharmacology. 2006 Jul;51(1):60-6 - PubMed
  228. J Perinat Med. 2015 Mar;43(2):221-5 - PubMed
  229. J Crit Care. 2011 Oct;26(5):534.e9-534.e17 - PubMed
  230. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2015 Sep;2(3):304-14 - PubMed
  231. Neoreviews. 2014 Dec 1;15(12):e537-e545 - PubMed
  232. Pain Pract. 2010 Jan-Feb;10(1):60-71 - PubMed
  233. Psychiatry Res. 2006 Mar 31;146(2):179-84 - PubMed
  234. Sleep Med. 2015 Apr;16(4):483-8 - PubMed
  235. Pain. 1986 Oct;27(1):63-68 - PubMed
  236. Fetal Diagn Ther. 1997 May-Jun;12(3):170-7 - PubMed
  237. Early Hum Dev. 2017 Dec;115:38-45 - PubMed
  238. Early Hum Dev. 2016 Aug;99:7-12 - PubMed
  239. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2008 Jan;62(1):68-77 - PubMed
  240. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2011 Apr;35(5):1291-301 - PubMed
  241. Curr Top Dev Biol. 2015;111:201-31 - PubMed
  242. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2016 May;12(5):274-89 - PubMed
  243. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2020 Feb - Apr;44-45:101671 - PubMed
  244. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012 May;25(5):535-7 - PubMed
  245. Midwifery. 2013 Dec;29(12):1346-51 - PubMed
  246. Pediatr Res. 2019 Jan;85(2):120-126 - PubMed
  247. Subst Use Misuse. 2014 Sep;49(11):1437-45 - PubMed
  248. Paediatr Drugs. 2003;5(9):615-27 - PubMed
  249. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2018 Oct;51:25-35 - PubMed
  250. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005 Nov;30(10):1050-8 - PubMed
  251. Semin Perinatol. 2001 Aug;25(4):236-47 - PubMed
  252. Child Dev. 1997 Apr;68(2):173-86 - PubMed
  253. Neurology. 2001 May 22;56(10):1278-84 - PubMed
  254. J Anat. 2020 Oct;237(4):655-671 - PubMed
  255. CMAJ. 2020 May 11;192(19):E509 - PubMed
  256. Biol Lett. 2016 Oct;12(10): - PubMed
  257. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016 Jan;41(1):3-23 - PubMed
  258. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2013 May 13;13:111 - PubMed
  259. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020 May 15;10:188 - PubMed
  260. Bone Joint Res. 2015 Jul;4(7):105-16 - PubMed
  261. Clin Auton Res. 2019 Dec;29(6):555-566 - PubMed
  262. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2001 Oct;98(2):160-4 - PubMed
  263. Front Physiol. 2018 Aug 07;9:1044 - PubMed
  264. Biosci Rep. 2018 Apr 13;38(2): - PubMed
  265. Physiotherapy. 2018 Sep;104(3):338-346 - PubMed
  266. J Nutr. 2010 Mar;140(3):437-45 - PubMed
  267. Comput Biol Med. 2012 Mar;42(3):335-41 - PubMed
  268. J Perinat Med. 2018 Aug 28;46(6):631-639 - PubMed
  269. Sleep. 2004 Nov 1;27(7):1405-17 - PubMed
  270. Physiol Rep. 2018 Mar;6(6):e13620 - PubMed
  271. J Perinatol. 2005 Sep;25(9):595-604 - PubMed
  272. J Pediatr. 2004 Feb;144(2):169-76 - PubMed
  273. Pediatr Res. 2021 Apr 15;: - PubMed
  274. Front Neurosci. 2020 Aug 18;14:887 - PubMed
  275. Trends Mol Med. 2014 Sep;20(9):509-18 - PubMed
  276. Psychosom Med. 2009 Apr;71(3):313-21 - PubMed
  277. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Mar;216(3):226-231 - PubMed
  278. Sci Rep. 2020 Oct 20;10(1):17722 - PubMed
  279. Occup Environ Med. 2006 Oct;63(10):649-56 - PubMed
  280. Environ Health Perspect. 2019 Jun;127(6):67005 - PubMed
  281. Epidemiology. 1999 Jul;10(4):370-5 - PubMed
  282. J Perinat Med. 2008;36(5):433-41 - PubMed
  283. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012 Dec;8(12):743-54 - PubMed
  284. BJOG. 2021 Aug;128(9):1443 - PubMed
  285. Front Pediatr. 2021 Aug 03;9:660476 - PubMed
  286. Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1781:353-376 - PubMed
  287. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 2018 Dec;78(12):1262-1282 - PubMed
  288. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Dec;193(6):2004-9 - PubMed
  289. Placenta. 2017 Jun;54:30-37 - PubMed
  290. Pediatr Obes. 2017 Aug;12 Suppl 1:3-17 - PubMed
  291. Paediatr Drugs. 2000 Nov-Dec;2(6):419-36 - PubMed
  292. J Physiol. 2018 Dec;596(23):5503-5504 - PubMed
  293. Ann Intern Med. 2001 Mar 6;134(5):396-408 - PubMed
  294. Adv Neurobiol. 2015;10:269-83 - PubMed
  295. J Perinat Med. 1993;21(2):107-16 - PubMed
  296. Early Hum Dev. 2017 Oct;113:87-103 - PubMed
  297. Ther Hypothermia Temp Manag. 2019 Mar;9(1):76-85 - PubMed
  298. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1995 Jun;27(6):1245-50 - PubMed
  299. Neurobiol Aging. 2019 Jun;78:1-17 - PubMed
  300. Chronobiol Int. 2018 Jul;35(7):896-909 - PubMed
  301. Front Pediatr. 2020 Aug 27;8:503 - PubMed
  302. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Feb;188(2):524-31 - PubMed
  303. Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Aug;164(8):1206-13 - PubMed
  304. Toxics. 2018 Jul 20;6(3): - PubMed
  305. Radiographics. 2015 Nov-Dec;35(7):2135-48 - PubMed
  306. BMJ Open. 2018 Jul 6;8(7):e020031 - PubMed
  307. Brain Dev. 2019 Mar;41(3):225-233 - PubMed
  308. Early Hum Dev. 2016 Jan;92:51-5 - PubMed
  309. Front Neurosci. 2021 Mar 22;15:650971 - PubMed
  310. J Neurosci. 2016 Jun 1;36(22):6041-9 - PubMed
  311. Biol Psychol. 2007 Feb;74(2):174-84 - PubMed
  312. Science. 1980 Oct 10;210(4466):193-5 - PubMed
  313. Diseases. 2018 Apr 01;6(2): - PubMed
  314. Pediatrics. 2016 Feb;137(2):e20154271 - PubMed
  315. Brain Dev. 2019 Oct;41(9):769-775 - PubMed
  316. Microbiome. 2018 Oct 30;6(1):196 - PubMed
  317. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29(15):2457-60 - PubMed
  318. Horm Res Paediatr. 2018;89(5):380-387 - PubMed
  319. Sci Total Environ. 2019 Feb 15;651(Pt 1):1137-1143 - PubMed
  320. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2002 Oct;81(10):909-17 - PubMed
  321. World J Pediatr. 2019 Jun;15(3):209-218 - PubMed
  322. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2017;82(5):417-436 - PubMed
  323. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2019 Dec;48(4):829-842 - PubMed
  324. Physiol Meas. 2015 Nov;36(11):2369-78 - PubMed
  325. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2020 Feb;301(2):405-414 - PubMed
  326. Cells. 2020 Mar 17;9(3): - PubMed
  327. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014 Nov 25;8:948 - PubMed
  328. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2021 Apr;26(2):101221 - PubMed
  329. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2017 Oct;30(20):2387-2394 - PubMed
  330. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2020 Sep;16(9):479-494 - PubMed
  331. Front Neurorobot. 2018 May 23;12:23 - PubMed
  332. PLoS One. 2013 Jul 01;8(7):e68211 - PubMed
  333. Circulation. 2014 Sep 16;130(12):1003-8 - PubMed
  334. Brain Behav Immun. 2017 Nov;66:201-209 - PubMed
  335. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1981 Feb 1;139(3):306-10 - PubMed
  336. Biol Psychol. 2011 Mar;86(3):174-80 - PubMed
  337. J Dev Orig Health Dis. 2021 Jun;12(3):354-356 - PubMed
  338. Anesth Analg. 1975 Nov-Dec;54(6):779-82 - PubMed
  339. Early Hum Dev. 1990 Sep;23(3):151-8 - PubMed
  340. Early Hum Dev. 2019 Mar;130:57-64 - PubMed
  341. J Med Ethics. 2020 Jan;46(1):3-6 - PubMed
  342. Neuroscience. 2016 Dec 3;338:207-219 - PubMed
  343. BJOG. 2020 Jan;127(2):159-169 - PubMed
  344. Pediatr Res. 2004 Jul;56(1):35-9 - PubMed
  345. BJOG. 2007 Oct;114(10):1194-201 - PubMed
  346. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2020 Nov 24;7(4): - PubMed
  347. Front Physiol. 2017 Oct 09;8:774 - PubMed
  348. J Perinatol. 1995 Nov-Dec;15(6):448-55 - PubMed
  349. J Pediatr Psychol. 2006 Jan-Feb;31(1):5-14 - PubMed
  350. PLoS One. 2018 Jul 17;13(7):e0200799 - PubMed
  351. J Perinat Med. 1980;8(1):38-41 - PubMed
  352. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1981 Jul;88(7):718-20 - PubMed
  353. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1984 Apr;22(2):85-90 - PubMed
  354. Sleep Med Rev. 2003 Aug;7(4):321-34 - PubMed
  355. J Perinatol. 2013 Nov;33(11):847-50 - PubMed
  356. Early Hum Dev. 2018 Aug;123:11-16 - PubMed
  357. Int J Womens Health. 2018 Apr 09;10:153-164 - PubMed
  358. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Oct 15;10:CD002271 - PubMed
  359. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982 Sep 15;144(2):149-53 - PubMed
  360. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1978 Feb 15;130(4):403-7 - PubMed
  361. BJOG. 2013 Nov;120(12):1450-2 - PubMed
  362. Anat Embryol (Berl). 1989;179(6):551-69 - PubMed
  363. Dev Psychopathol. 2020 Dec;32(5):1685-1695 - PubMed
  364. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1981 Jul 15;140(6):702-6 - PubMed
  365. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020 Apr 15;201(8):1002-1006 - PubMed
  366. J Pediatr. 2013 Jan;162(1):35-41 - PubMed
  367. Paediatr Child Health. 2018 Jul;23(4):285-291 - PubMed
  368. J Physiol. 2007 Mar 15;579(Pt 3):893-907 - PubMed
  369. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2019 Aug 9;19(1):285 - PubMed
  370. Prenat Diagn. 2017 Jan;37(1):95-110 - PubMed
  371. J Neurosci. 1989 May;9(5):1764-73 - PubMed
  372. Neonatology. 2017;112(2):187-192 - PubMed
  373. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2013 Mar 1;304(5):R383-92 - PubMed
  374. Am J Perinatol. 1987 Apr;4(2):167-70 - PubMed
  375. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2015 Oct;39:28-37 - PubMed
  376. Life Sci. 2015 Mar 15;125:2-8 - PubMed
  377. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016 Apr;17(4):e165-76 - PubMed
  378. Thorax. 2002 Jun;57(6):555-8 - PubMed
  379. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2014 Sep-Oct;24(5):474-81 - PubMed
  380. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 1996 Jan;25(1):73-81 - PubMed
  381. Pediatr Res. 2016 Dec;80(6):777-784 - PubMed
  382. Sci Rep. 2017 Jun 6;7(1):2860 - PubMed
  383. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today. 2016 Jun;108(2):174-80 - PubMed
  384. Sleep Med Rev. 2010 Apr;14(2):107-14 - PubMed
  385. Lancet. 2008 Jan 5;371(9606):75-84 - PubMed
  386. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2020 Oct 6;36:441-468 - PubMed
  387. Front Integr Neurosci. 2013 Aug 08;7:57 - PubMed
  388. Arch Argent Pediatr. 2020 Jun;118(3):e246-e251 - PubMed
  389. Nat Rev Immunol. 2009 Jun;9(6):418-28 - PubMed
  390. J Reprod Immunol. 2018 Apr;126:18-22 - PubMed
  391. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2015 Nov;94(11):1156-67 - PubMed
  392. Front Neurol Neurosci. 2010;28:32-41 - PubMed
  393. Sleep. 2012 Feb 01;35(2):177-86 - PubMed
  394. Sci Rep. 2019 Jul 30;9(1):11020 - PubMed
  395. Women Birth. 2019 Feb;32(1):1-2 - PubMed
  396. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2016 Dec;18(4):459-464 - PubMed
  397. Can J Anaesth. 1993 Dec;40(12):1136-41 - PubMed
  398. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2003 Nov;9(6):477-83 - PubMed
  399. Reprod Fertil Dev. 2005;17(6):641-50 - PubMed
  400. J Nutr. 2001 Feb;131(2S-2):581S-589S - PubMed
  401. Nature. 2000 May 25;405(6785):458-62 - PubMed
  402. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2020 Mar;33(6):909-912 - PubMed
  403. Neuroscientist. 2007 Jun;13(3):241-56 - PubMed
  404. Q J Exp Psychol B. 1992 Apr;44(3-4):279-303 - PubMed
  405. Curr Drug Saf. 2006 Jan;1(1):17-24 - PubMed
  406. Breastfeed Med. 2009 Jun;4(2):71-82 - PubMed
  407. Front Microbiol. 2017 Mar 06;8:356 - PubMed
  408. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2014 Dec;36(12):1055-1064 - PubMed
  409. Early Hum Dev. 2018 Apr;119:8-14 - PubMed

Publication Types