Display options
Share it on

Methods Mol Biol. 2022;2445:3-24. doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2071-7_1.

A Balance Between Autophagy and Other Cell Death Modalities in Cancer.

Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)

Anna S Gorbunova, Gelina S Kopeina, Boris Zhivotovsky

Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Basic Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
  2. Faculty of Basic Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia. [email protected].
  3. Karolinska Institutet, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden. [email protected].

PMID: 34972982 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2071-7_1

Abstract

Autophagy is an intracellular self-digestive process involved in catabolic degradation of damaged proteins, and organelles, and the elimination of cellular pathogens. Initially, autophagy was considered as a prosurvival mechanism, but the following insights shed light on its prodeath function. Nowadays, autophagy is established as a crucial player in the development of various diseases through interaction with other molecular pathways within a cell. Additionally, disturbance in autophagy is one of the main pathological alterations that lead to resistance of cancer cells to treatment. These autophagy-related pathologies gave rise to the development of new therapeutic drugs. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the autophagic role in disease pathogenesis, particularly in cancer, and the interplay between autophagy and other cell death modalities in order to combat cancer.

© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.

Keywords: Apoptosis; Autophagy; Autophagy-dependent cell death; Cancer; Necroptosis

References

  1. de Duve C (1963) The lysosome. Sci Am 208:64–72 - PubMed
  2. Glaumann H, Ericsson JLE, Marzella L (1981) Mechanisms of Intralysosomal degradation with special reference to autophagocytosis and Heterophagocytosis of cell organelles. Int Rev Cytol 73:149–182 - PubMed
  3. Clarke PH (1990) Developmental cell death: morphological diversity and multiple mechanisms. Anat Embryol (Berl) 181(3):195–213 - PubMed
  4. Galluzzi L, Vitale I, Aaronson SA et al (2018) Molecular mechanisms of cell death: recommendations of the nomenclature committee on cell death 2018. Cell Death Differ 25:486–541 - PubMed
  5. Abdrakhmanov A, Gogvadze V, Zhivotovsky B (2020) To eat or to die: deciphering selective forms of autophagy. Trends Biochem Sci 45:347–364 - PubMed
  6. Schuck S (2020) Microautophagy – distinct molecular mechanisms handle cargoes of many sizes. J Cell Sci 133(17):jcs246322 - PubMed
  7. Boya P, Reggiori F, Codogno P (2013) Emerging regulation and functions of autophagy. Nat Cell Biol 15:713–720 - PubMed
  8. Kocaturk NM, Gozuacik D (2018) Crosstalk between mammalian autophagy and the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Front Cell Dev Biol 2(6):128 - PubMed
  9. Park H, Kang JH, Lee S (2020) Autophagy in neurodegenerative diseases: a hunter for aggregates. Int J Mol Sci 21(9):3369 - PubMed
  10. Youn J, Lee S-B, Lee HS et al (2018) Cerebrospinal fluid levels of autophagy-related proteins represent potentially novel biomarkers of early-stage Parkinson’s disease. Sci Rep 8:16866 - PubMed
  11. Nagata E, Sawa A, Ross CA, Snyder SH (2004) Autophagosome-like vacuole formation in Huntingtons disease lymphoblasts. Neuroreport 15:1325–1328 - PubMed
  12. Sasaki S (2011) Autophagy in spinal cord motor neurons in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 70(5):349–359 - PubMed
  13. Nixon RA, Wegiel J, Kumar A et al (2005) Extensive involvement of autophagy in Alzheimer disease: an Immuno-electron microscopy study. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 64:113–122 - PubMed
  14. Inoue K, Rispoli J, Kaphzan H et al (2012) Macroautophagy deficiency mediates age-dependent neurodegeneration through a phospho-tau pathway. Mol Neurodegener 7:48 - PubMed
  15. Niu X-Y, Huang H-J, Zhang J-B et al (2016) Deletion of autophagy-related gene 7 in dopaminergic neurons prevents their loss induced by MPTP. Neuroscience 339:22–31 - PubMed
  16. Kurosawa M, Matsumoto G, Kino Y et al (2015) Depletion of p62 reduces nuclear inclusions and paradoxically ameliorates disease phenotypes in Huntington’s model mice. Hum Mol Genet 24:1092–1105 - PubMed
  17. Lonskaya I, Hebron ML, Algarzae NK et al (2013) Decreased parkin solubility is associated with impairment of autophagy in the nigrostriatum of sporadic Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience 232:90–105 - PubMed
  18. Winslow AR, Chen CW, Corrochano S et al (2010) α-Synuclein impairs macroautophagy: implications for Parkinson’s disease. J Cell Biol 190:1023–1037 - PubMed
  19. Sarkar S, Olsen AL, Sygnecka K et al (2021) α-Synuclein impairs autophagosome maturation through abnormal actin stabilization. PLoS Genet 17:e1009359 - PubMed
  20. Cloughesy TF, Yoshimoto K, Nghiemphu P et al (2008) Antitumor activity of rapamycin in a phase I trial for patients with recurrent PTEN-deficient glioblastoma. PLoS Med 5:e8 - PubMed
  21. Franz DN, Belousova E, Sparagana S et al (2013) Efficacy and safety of everolimus for subependymal giant cell astrocytomas associated with tuberous sclerosis complex (EXIST-1): a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet 381:125–132 - PubMed
  22. Klettner A, Herdegen T (2003) FK506 and its analogs - therapeutic potential for neurological disorders. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord 2(3):153–162 - PubMed
  23. Kuhn JG, Chang SM, Wen PY et al (2007) Pharmacokinetic and tumor distribution characteristics of temsirolimus in patients with recurrent malignant glioma. Clin Cancer Res 13:7401–7406 - PubMed
  24. Cassano T, Magini A, Giovagnoli S et al (2019) Early intrathecal infusion of everolimus restores cognitive function and mood in a murine model of Alzheimer’s disease. Exp Neurol 311:88–105 - PubMed
  25. Menzies FM, Huebener J, Renna M et al (2010) Autophagy induction reduces mutant ataxin-3 levels and toxicity in a mouse model of spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. Brain 133:93–104 - PubMed
  26. Ravikumar B, Vacher C, Berger Z et al (2004) Inhibition of mTOR induces autophagy and reduces toxicity of polyglutamine expansions in fly and mouse models of Huntington disease. Nat Genet 36:585–595 - PubMed
  27. Siracusa R, Paterniti I, Cordaro M et al (2018) Neuroprotective effects of Temsirolimus in animal models of Parkinson’s disease. Mol Neurobiol 55:2403–2419 - PubMed
  28. Spilman P, Podlutskaya N, Hart MJ et al (2010) Inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin abolishes cognitive deficits and reduces amyloid-β levels in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS One 5:e9979 - PubMed
  29. Lu M, Su C, Qiao C et al (2016) Metformin prevents dopaminergic neuron death in MPTP/P-induced mouse model of Parkinson’s disease via autophagy and mitochondrial ROS clearance. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 19:pyw047 - PubMed
  30. Tayara K, Espinosa-Oliva AM, García-Domínguez I et al (2018) Divergent effects of metformin on an inflammatory model of Parkinson’s disease. Front Cell Neurosci 12:440 - PubMed
  31. Koenig AM, Mechanic-Hamilton D, Xie SX et al (2017) Effects of the insulin sensitizer metformin in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 31:107–113 - PubMed
  32. Curry DW, Stutz B, Andrews ZB, Elsworth JD (2018) Targeting AMPK signaling as a neuroprotective strategy in Parkinson’s disease. J Parkinsons Dis 8:161–181 - PubMed
  33. Cao L, Xiong S, Wu Z et al (2021) Anti-Na - PubMed
  34. Levine B, Kroemer G (2008) Autophagy in the pathogenesis of disease. Cell 132:27–42 - PubMed
  35. Nakai A, Yamaguchi O, Takeda T et al (2007) The role of autophagy in cardiomyocytes in the basal state and in response to hemodynamic stress. Nat Med 13:619–624 - PubMed
  36. Tanaka Y, Guhde G, Suter A et al (2000) Accumulation of autophagic vacuoles and cardiomyopathy LAMP-2-deficient mice. Nature 406:902–906 - PubMed
  37. Cui L, Zhao L-P, Ye J-Y et al (2020) The lysosomal membrane protein Lamp2 alleviates lysosomal cell death by promoting Autophagic flux in ischemic cardiomyocytes. Front Cell Dev Biol 8:31 - PubMed
  38. Zhu H, Tannous P, Johnstone JL et al (2007) Cardiac autophagy is a maladaptive response to hemodynamic stress. J Clin Invest 117:1782–1793 - PubMed
  39. Wang L, Ma H, Huang P et al (2020) Down-regulation of Beclin1 promotes direct cardiac reprogramming. Sci Transl Med 12(566):eaay7856 - PubMed
  40. Sun Y, Yao X, Zhang QJ et al (2018) Beclin-1-dependent autophagy protects the heart during sepsis. Circulation 138:2247–2262 - PubMed
  41. Bottillo I, Giordano C, Cerbelli B et al (2016) A novel LAMP2 mutation associated with severe cardiac hypertrophy and microvascular remodeling in a female with Danon disease: a case report and literature review. Cardiovasc Pathol 25:423–431 - PubMed
  42. Nascimbeni AC, Fanin M, Angelini C, Sandri M (2018) Autophagy dysregulation in Danon disease. Cell Death Dis 8:e2565 - PubMed
  43. Dasari SK, Schejter E, Bialik S et al (2017) Death by over-eating: The Gaucher disease associated gene GBA1, identified in a screen for mediators of autophagic cell death, is necessary for developmental cell death in Drosophila midgut. Cell Cycle 16:2003–2010 - PubMed
  44. Chabás A, Cormand B, Grinberg D et al (1995) Unusual expression of Gaucher’s disease: cardiovascular calcifications in three sibs homozygous for the D409H mutation. J Med Genet 32:740–742 - PubMed
  45. Phase 1/2 Lentiviral Vector Gene Therapy - The GuardOne Trial of AVR-RD-02 for Subjects With Type 1 Gaucher Disease (2021). https://web.archive.org/web/20210402164926/https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04145037 . Accessed 16 Apr 2021 - PubMed
  46. Gene Therapy for Male Patients With Danon Disease (DD) Using RP-A501; AAV9.LAMP2B (2021). https://web.archive.org/web/20201110205341/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03882437 . Accessed 16 Apr 2021 - PubMed
  47. Miranda CJ, McIntosh J, Kia A et al (2019) Liver directed AAV gene therapy to treat Gaucher disease. Mol Genet Metab 126:S100 - PubMed
  48. Manso AM, Hashem SI, Nelson BC et al (2020) Systemic AAV9.LAMP2B injection reverses metabolic and physiologic multiorgan dysfunction in a murine model of Danon disease. Sci Transl Med 12(535):eaax1744 - PubMed
  49. English L, Chemali M, Duron J et al (2009) Autophagy enhances the presentation of endogenous viral antigens on MHC class I molecules during HSV-1 infection. Nat Immunol 10:480–487 - PubMed
  50. Ahmad L, Mashbat B, Leung C et al (2019) Human TANK-binding kinase 1 is required for early autophagy induction upon herpes simplex virus 1 infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol 143:765–769.e7 - PubMed
  51. Schmid D, Pypaert M, Münz C (2007) Antigen-loading compartments for major histocompatibility complex class II molecules continuously receive input from autophagosomes. Immunity 26:79–92 - PubMed
  52. Owczarczyk AB, Schaller MA, Reed M et al (2015) Sirtuin 1 regulates dendritic cell activation and autophagy during respiratory syncytial virus–induced immune responses. J Immunol 195:1637–1646 - PubMed
  53. Wang Y, Sharma P, Jefferson M et al (2021) Non-canonical autophagy functions of ATG16L1 in epithelial cells limit lethal infection by influenza a virus. EMBO J 40:e105543 - PubMed
  54. Sagnier S, Daussy CF, Borel S et al (2015) Autophagy restricts HIV-1 infection by selectively degrading tat in CD4 - PubMed
  55. Kristina S, Tschan Mario P (2021) Autophagy and coronavirus infection - a Trojan horse or achilles heel? Swiss Med Wkly 151:w20468 - PubMed
  56. Lin JY, Huang HI (2020) Autophagy is induced and supports virus replication in enterovirus A71-infected human primary neuronal cells. Sci Rep 10:1–16 - PubMed
  57. Doms RW (2016) Basic concepts: a step-by-step guide to viral infection. Viral Pathogenesis:29–40 - PubMed
  58. Castro-Gonzalez S, Shi Y, Colomer-Lluch M et al (2021) HIV-1 Nef counteracts autophagy restriction by enhancing the association between BECN1 and its inhibitor BCL2 in a PRKN-dependent manner. Autophagy 17:553–577 - PubMed
  59. Daussy CF, Galais M, Pradel B et al (2020) HIV-1 Env induces pexophagy and an oxidative stress leading to uninfected CD4 - PubMed
  60. Currò M, Visalli G, Pellicanò GF et al (2020) Vitamin D status modulates inflammatory response in HIV+ subjects: evidence for involvement of autophagy and TG2 expression in PBMC. Int J Mol Sci 21:7558 - PubMed
  61. Chen X, Wang K, Xing Y et al (2014) Coronavirus membrane-associated papain-like proteases induce autophagy through interacting with Beclin1 to negatively regulate antiviral innate immunity. Protein Cell 5:912–927 - PubMed
  62. Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S et al (2005) Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J 2:69 - PubMed
  63. Axfors C, Schmitt AM, Janiaud P et al (2020) Mortality outcomes with hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in COVID-19: an international collaborative meta-analysis of randomized trials. Nat Commun 12:2349 - PubMed
  64. Recovery Collaborative Group (2020) Effect of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med 383:2030–2040 - PubMed
  65. Denton D, Kumar S (2019) Autophagy-dependent cell death. Cell Death Differ 26:605–616 - PubMed
  66. Klionsky DJ, Abdelmohsen K, Abe A et al (2016) Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (3rd edition). Autophagy 12:1–222 - PubMed
  67. Lee CY, Simon CR, Woodard CT, Baehrecke EH (2002) Genetic mechanism for the stage- and tissue-specific regulation of steroid triggered programmed cell death in drosophila. Dev Biol 252:138–148 - PubMed
  68. Xu T, Nicolson S, Denton D, Kumar S (2015) Distinct requirements of autophagy-related genes in programmed cell death. Cell Death Differ 22:1792–1802 - PubMed
  69. Denton D, Shravage B, Simin R et al (2009) Autophagy, not apoptosis, is essential for midgut cell death in drosophila. Curr Biol 19:1741–1746 - PubMed
  70. Cornillon S, Foa C, Davoust J et al (1994) Programmed cell death in Dictyostelium. J Cell Sci 107(Pt 10):2691–2704 - PubMed
  71. Giusti C, Tresse E, Luciani M-F, Golstein P (2009) Autophagic cell death: analysis in Dictyostelium. Biochim Biophys Acta, Mol Cell Res 1793:1422–1431 - PubMed
  72. Luciani MF, Giusti C, Harms B et al (2011) Atg1 allows second-signaled autophagic cell death in Dictyostelium. Autophagy 7:501–508 - PubMed
  73. Kheloufi M, Boulanger CM, Codogno P, Rautou P-E (2015) Autosis occurs in the liver of patients with severe anorexia nervosa. Hepatology 62(2):657–658 - PubMed
  74. Nah J, Zablocki D, Sadoshima J (2020) Autosis: a new target to prevent cell death. JACC Basic Transl Sci 5:857–869 - PubMed
  75. Nah J, Zhai P, Huang C-Y et al (2020) Upregulation of Rubicon promotes autosis during myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. J Clin Invest 130:2978–2991 - PubMed
  76. Yu L, Wan F, Dutta S et al (2006) Autophagic programmed cell death by selective catalase degradation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:4952–4957 - PubMed
  77. Shimizu S, Kanaseki T, Mizushima N et al (2004) Role of Bcl-2 family proteins in a non-apoptotic programmed cell death dependent on autophagy genes. Nat Cell Biol 6:1221–1228 - PubMed
  78. Liu Y, Shoji-Kawata S, Sumpter RM et al (2013) Autosis is a Na - PubMed
  79. Kriel J, Loos B (2019) The good, the bad and the autophagosome: exploring unanswered questions of autophagy-dependent cell death. Cell Death Differ 26:640–652 - PubMed
  80. Dixon SJ, Lemberg KM, Lamprecht MR et al (2012) Ferroptosis: an iron-dependent form of nonapoptotic cell death. Cell 149:1060–1072 - PubMed
  81. Zhou B, Liu J, Kang R et al (2020) Ferroptosis is a type of autophagy-dependent cell death. Semin Cancer Biol 66:89–100 - PubMed
  82. Zhu S, Zhang Q, Sun X et al (2017) HSPA5 regulates Ferroptotic cell death in cancer cells. Cancer Res 77:2064–2077 - PubMed
  83. Haberzettl P, Hill BG (2013) Oxidized lipids activate autophagy in a JNK-dependent manner by stimulating the endoplasmic reticulum stress response. Redox Biol 1:56–64 - PubMed
  84. Hill BG, Haberzettl P, Ahmed Y et al (2008) Unsaturated lipid peroxidation-derived aldehydes activate autophagy in vascular smooth-muscle cells. Biochem J 410:525–534 - PubMed
  85. Krohne TU, Stratmann NK, Kopitz J, Holz FG (2010) Effects of lipid peroxidation products on lipofuscinogenesis and autophagy in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Exp Eye Res 90:465–471 - PubMed
  86. Torii S, Shintoku R, Kubota C et al (2016) An essential role for functional lysosomes in ferroptosis of cancer cells. Biochem J 473:769–777 - PubMed
  87. Gao H, Bai Y, Jia Y et al (2018) Ferroptosis is a lysosomal cell death process. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 503:1550–1556 - PubMed
  88. Liu Y, Wang Y, Liu J et al (2021) Interplay between MTOR and GPX4 signaling modulates autophagy-dependent ferroptotic cancer cell death. Cancer Gene Ther 28:55–63 - PubMed
  89. Kang R, Zhu S, Zeh HJ et al (2018) BECN1 is a new driver of ferroptosis. Autophagy 14:2173–2175 - PubMed
  90. Song X, Zhu S, Chen P et al (2018) AMPK-mediated BECN1 phosphorylation promotes Ferroptosis by directly blocking system X - PubMed
  91. Li C, Zhang Y, Liu J et al (2020) Mitochondrial DNA stress triggers autophagy-dependent ferroptotic death. Autophagy:1–13 - PubMed
  92. Martins I, Raza SQ, Voisin L et al (2017) Entosis: the emerging face of non-cell-autonomous type IV programmed death. Biom J 40:133–140 - PubMed
  93. Mlynarczuk-Bialy I, Dziuba I, Sarnecka A et al (2020) Entosis: from cell biology to clinical cancer pathology. Cancers (Basel) 12:2481 - PubMed
  94. Su Y, Ren H, Tang M et al (2021) Role and dynamics of vacuolar pH during cell-in-cell mediated death. Cell Death Dis 12:119 - PubMed
  95. Zeng C, Zeng B, Dong C et al (2020) Rho-ROCK signaling mediates entotic cell death in tumor. Cell Death Discov 6:4 - PubMed
  96. Maiuri MC, Le Toumelin G, Criollo A et al (2007) Functional and physical interaction between Bcl-XL and a BH3-like domain in Beclin-1. EMBO J 26:2527–2539 - PubMed
  97. Malik SA, Orhon I, Morselli E et al (2011) BH3 mimetics activate multiple pro-autophagic pathways. Oncogene 30:3918–3929 - PubMed
  98. Pattingre S, Tassa A, Qu X et al (2005) Bcl-2 Antiapoptotic proteins inhibit Beclin 1-dependent autophagy. Cell 122:927–939 - PubMed
  99. Kapuy O, Vinod PK, Mandl J, Bánhegyi G (2013) A cellular stress-directed bistable switch controls the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis. Mol BioSyst 9:296–306 - PubMed
  100. Luo S, Rubinsztein DC (2010) Apoptosis blocks Beclin 1-dependent autophagosome synthesis: an effect rescued by Bcl-xL. Cell Death Differ 17:268–277 - PubMed
  101. Zhang L, Wang H, Ding K, Xu J (2015) FTY720 induces autophagy-related apoptosis and necroptosis in human glioblastoma cells. Toxicol Lett 236:43–59 - PubMed
  102. Wirawan E, Vande Walle L, Kersse K et al (2010) Caspase-mediated cleavage of Beclin-1 inactivates Beclin-1-induced autophagy and enhances apoptosis by promoting the release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria. Cell Death Dis 1:e18–e18 - PubMed
  103. Rubinstein AD, Eisenstein M, Ber Y et al (2011) The autophagy protein Atg12 associates with Antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family members to promote mitochondrial apoptosis. Mol Cell 44:698–709 - PubMed
  104. Yousefi S, Perozzo R, Schmid I et al (2006) Calpain-mediated cleavage of Atg5 switches autophagy to apoptosis. Nat Cell Biol 8:1124–1132 - PubMed
  105. Tasdemir E, Maiuri MC, Galluzzi L et al (2008) Regulation of autophagy by cytoplasmic p53. Nat Cell Biol 10:676–687 - PubMed
  106. Morselli E, Shen S, Ruckenstuhl C et al (2011) p53 inhibits autophagy by interacting with the human ortholog of yeast Atg17, RB1CC1/FIP200. Cell Cycle 10:2763–2769 - PubMed
  107. Budanov AV, Karin M (2008) p53 target genes Sestrin1 and Sestrin2 connect genotoxic stress and mTOR signaling. Cell 134:451–460 - PubMed
  108. Maiuri MC, Malik SA, Morselli E et al (2009) Stimulation of autophagy by the p53 target gene Sestrin2. Cell Cycle 8:1571–1576 - PubMed
  109. Vaseva AV, Marchenko ND, Ji K et al (2012) p53 opens the mitochondrial permeability transition pore to trigger necrosis. Cell 149:1536–1548 - PubMed
  110. Khandia R, Dadar M, Munjal A et al (2019) A comprehensive review of autophagy and its various roles in infectious, non-infectious, and lifestyle diseases: current knowledge and prospects for disease prevention, novel drug design, and therapy. Cell 8:674 - PubMed
  111. Goodall ML, Fitzwalter BE, Zahedi S et al (2016) The autophagy machinery controls cell death switching between apoptosis and necroptosis. Dev Cell 37:337–349 - PubMed
  112. Seo J, Seong D, Nam YW et al (2020) Beclin 1 functions as a negative modulator of MLKL oligomerisation by integrating into the necrosome complex. Cell Death Differ 27:3065–3081 - PubMed
  113. Matsuzawa-Ishimoto Y, Shono Y, Gomez LE et al (2017) Autophagy protein ATG16L1 prevents necroptosis in the intestinal epithelium. J Exp Med 214:3687–3705 - PubMed
  114. Ye Y-C, Yu L, Wang H-J et al (2011) TNFα-induced necroptosis and autophagy via Supression of the p38–NF-κB survival pathway in L929 cells. J Pharmacol Sci 117:160–169 - PubMed
  115. Frank D, Vaux DL, Murphy JM et al (2019) Activated MLKL attenuates autophagy following its translocation to intracellular membranes. J Cell Sci 132:jcs220996 - PubMed
  116. Herzog C, Yang C, Holmes A, Kaushal GP (2012) zVAD-fmk prevents cisplatin-induced cleavage of autophagy proteins but impairs autophagic flux and worsens renal function. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 303:F1239–F1250 - PubMed
  117. Lee J-S, Li Q, Lee J-Y et al (2009) FLIP-mediated autophagy regulation in cell death control. Nat Cell Biol 11:1355–1362 - PubMed
  118. Yang Y, Klionsky DJ (2020) Autophagy and disease: unanswered questions. Cell Death Differ 27:858–871 - PubMed
  119. Qu X, Yu J, Bhagat G et al (2003) Promotion of tumorigenesis by heterozygous disruption of the beclin 1 autophagy gene. J Clin Invest 112:1809–1820 - PubMed
  120. Liang XH, Jackson S, Seaman M et al (1999) Induction of autophagy and inhibition of tumorigenesis by beclin 1. Nature 402:672–676 - PubMed
  121. Vega-Rubín-de-Celis S, Zou Z, Fernández ÁF et al (2018) Increased autophagy blocks HER2-mediated breast tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115:4176–4181 - PubMed
  122. Kang MR, Kim MS, Oh JE et al (2009) Frameshift mutations of autophagy-related genes ATG2B, ATG5, ATG9B and ATG12 in gastric and colorectal cancers with microsatellite instability. J Pathol 217:702–706 - PubMed
  123. Wible DJ, Chao H-P, Tang DG, Bratton SB (2019) ATG5 cancer mutations and alternative mRNA splicing reveal a conjugation switch that regulates ATG12–ATG5-ATG16L1 complex assembly and autophagy. Cell Discov 5:42 - PubMed
  124. Takamura A, Komatsu M, Hara T et al (2011) Autophagy-deficient mice develop multiple liver tumors. Genes Dev 25:795–800 - PubMed
  125. Lebovitz CB, Robertson AG, Goya R et al (2015) Cross-cancer profiling of molecular alterations within the human autophagy interaction network. Autophagy 11:1668–1687 - PubMed
  126. Verma AK, Bharti PS, Rafat S et al (2021) Autophagy paradox of cancer: role, regulation, and duality. Oxidative Med Cell Longev 2021:1–17 - PubMed
  127. Kim Y-M, Jung CH, Seo M et al (2015) mTORC1 phosphorylates UVRAG to negatively regulate autophagosome and endosome maturation. Mol Cell 57:207–218 - PubMed
  128. Song Y, Quach C, Liang C (2020) UVRAG in autophagy, inflammation, and cancer. Autophagy 16:387–388 - PubMed
  129. Kim MS, Jeong EG, Ahn CH et al (2008) Frameshift mutation of UVRAG, an autophagy-related gene, in gastric carcinomas with microsatellite instability. Hum Pathol 39:1059–1063 - PubMed
  130. He S, Zhao Z, Yang Y et al (2015) Truncating mutation in the autophagy gene UVRAG confers oncogenic properties and chemosensitivity in colorectal cancers. Nat Commun 6:7839 - PubMed
  131. Maria Fimia G, Stoykova A, Romagnoli A et al (2007) Ambra1 regulates autophagy and development of the nervous system. Nature 447:1121–1125 - PubMed
  132. Di Bartolomeo S, Corazzari M, Nazio F et al (2010) The dynamic interaction of AMBRA1 with the dynein motor complex regulates mammalian autophagy. J Cell Biol 191:155–168 - PubMed
  133. Strappazzon F, Di Rita A, Peschiaroli A et al (2020) HUWE1 controls MCL1 stability to unleash AMBRA1-induced mitophagy. Cell Death Differ 27:1155–1168 - PubMed
  134. Strappazzon F, Nazio F, Corrado M et al (2015) AMBRA1 is able to induce mitophagy via LC3 binding, regardless of PARKIN and p62/SQSTM1. Cell Death Differ 22:419–432 - PubMed
  135. Cianfanelli V, Fuoco C, Lorente M et al (2015) AMBRA1 links autophagy to cell proliferation and tumorigenesis by promoting c-Myc dephosphorylation and degradation. Nat Cell Biol 17:20–30 - PubMed
  136. Lorin S, Hamaï A, Mehrpour M, Codogno P (2013) Autophagy regulation and its role in cancer. Semin Cancer Biol 23:361–379 - PubMed
  137. Mrakovcic M, Fröhlich LF (2018) p53-mediated molecular control of autophagy in tumor cells. Biomol Ther 8:14 - PubMed
  138. Gong C, Bauvy C, Tonelli G et al (2013) Beclin 1 and autophagy are required for the tumorigenicity of breast cancer stem-like/progenitor cells. Oncogene 32:2261–2272 - PubMed
  139. Yue W, Hamaï A, Tonelli G et al (2013) Inhibition of the autophagic flux by salinomycin in breast cancer stem-like/progenitor cells interferes with their maintenance. Autophagy 9:714–729 - PubMed
  140. Gammoh N, Fraser J, Puente C et al (2016) Suppression of autophagy impedes glioblastoma development and induces senescence. Autophagy 12:1431–1439 - PubMed
  141. Amaravadi R, Kimmelman AC, White E (2016) Recent insights into the function of autophagy in cancer. Genes Dev 30:1913–1930 - PubMed
  142. Chen X, Gong J, Zeng H et al (2010) MicroRNA145 targets BNIP3 and suppresses prostate cancer progression. Cancer Res 70:2728–2738 - PubMed
  143. Maes H, Van Eygen S, Krysko DV et al (2014) BNIP3 supports melanoma cell migration and vasculogenic mimicry by orchestrating the actin cytoskeleton. Cell Death Dis 5:e1127 - PubMed
  144. Li J, Yang B, Zhou Q et al (2013) Autophagy promotes hepatocellular carcinoma cell invasion through activation of epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Carcinogenesis 34:1343–1351 - PubMed
  145. Seok JK, Hong E-H, Yang G et al (2021) Oxidized phospholipids in tumor microenvironment stimulate tumor metastasis via regulation of autophagy. Cell 10:558 - PubMed
  146. Wu Q, Xiang M, Wang K et al (2020) Overexpression of p62 induces autophagy and promotes proliferation, migration and invasion of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells through promoting ERK signaling pathway. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 20:624–637 - PubMed
  147. Fan Q, Yang L, Zhang X et al (2018) Autophagy promotes metastasis and glycolysis by upregulating MCT1 expression and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway activation in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 37:9 - PubMed

Publication Types